Living Mountains
How and Why Volcanoes Erupt
by Jacques Kornprobst and Christine Laverne
Living Mountains: How and Why Volcanoes Erupt
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| CONSTRUCTING VOLCANOES |
1
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| Simple and Complex Volcanoes |
1
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| Lavas |
2
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| Fluid Lavas: Flows and Lava Lakes |
3
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| Pahoehoe Flows, 'A'a Flows, and Ropy Lavas |
3
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| Lava Tunnels |
4
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| Columnar Jointing |
5
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| Viscous Lavas: Domes and Petaloid Flows |
8
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| Simple Domes, Complex Domes, and Cryptodomes |
9
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| Prismatic Columns in Viscous Lava |
11
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| Volcanic Ejecta |
11
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| Bombs, Lapilli, and Ash |
11
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| Inclusions and Xenoliths |
12
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| Pyroclastic Formations |
12
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| Ignimbrites |
14
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| Why Explosive Eruptions Occur |
15
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| Volcanic Gases |
15
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| Gas Expansion |
16
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| Strombolian Eruptions and Lava Fountains |
17
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| Plinian Eruptions |
20
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| Pelean Eruptions |
20
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| Surges |
23
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| When Rising Magma Meets Groundwater |
23
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| Carbonic Eruptions |
26
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| Percolation of Carbon Dioxide through Earth's Crust |
26
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| Disruption of Deep Aquifer Layers |
26
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| Overturn of Water in Crater Lakes |
27
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| The Effects of Volcanic Eruptions on Climate |
28
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| Repose Period of a Volcano and Fumarolic Activity |
29
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| Submarine Volcanoes: Eruptions beneath the Sea |
29
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| Hyaloclastites |
30
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| Pillow Lavas and Lava Ponds |
30
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| Black Smokers |
33
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| Volcanic Collapse |
34
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| Lahars |
34
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| Flank Slides |
35
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| Calderas |
36
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| WHERE MAGMA ORIGINATES |
38
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| The Earth's Concentric Structure |
38
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| Partial Melting of Rocks |
40
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| Migration of a Melt |
42
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| Formation of Magma Chambers |
42
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| The Conditions of Partial Melting |
43
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| Mantle Convection and Plate Tectonics |
44
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| Seafloor Spreading |
45
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| Subduction |
47
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| Mantle Upwelling: Partial Melting due to Reduced Pressure |
47
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| Formation of the Oceanic Crust |
48
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| Hot Spot Volcanism |
49
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| Subduction: Partial Melting due to the Addition of Water |
51
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| Magma Pooling: Partial Melting due to Increased Temperature |
53
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| VOLCANIC ROCK DIVERSITY |
55
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| Cooling History |
55
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| Obsidian |
56
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| Microlitic and Doleritic Textures |
57
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| Aphyric versus Porphyritic Texture |
58
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| Chemical Diversity |
59
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| Differences in Source Material and Degree of Partial Melting |
60
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| Magma Mixing and Contamination |
61
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| Bimodal Volcanism |
61
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| Magma Mixing or Hybridization |
61
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| Contamination |
62
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| Magmatic Differentiation by Fractional Crystallization |
62
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| Crystallization in a Magma Chamber |
64
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| Unraveling a Lava's History |
67
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| Trace Elements |
67
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| Isotopic Ratios |
69
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| DATING VOLCANIC EVENTS |
72
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| History |
72
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| Relative Chronology |
73
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| Absolute Chronology |
74
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| Carbon-14 Dating |
74
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| Potassium-Argon Dating |
75
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| Thermoluminescence |
76
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| PREDICTING VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS |
78
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| Estimating the Threat |
78
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| Precursors of Eruptions |
79
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| Seismic Precursors |
79
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| Inflation of Volcanoes |
80
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| Tilt Meters |
80
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| Displacement Meters |
80
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| Electronic Distance Meters |
81
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| Spatial Altimetry |
81
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| Thermal and Chemical Precursors |
82
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| Magnetic Precursors |
83
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| Volcano Surveillance Networks |
83
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| Glossary |
89
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| Index |
95
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